LECTURA

Introduction

Not long ago it was necessary to persuade library and information professionals of the wisdom and appropriateness of marketing. Those with roots in public service defined their responsibilities and role in terms of service availability and delivery. Although they were committed to "users", and it was common to conduct user surveys that informed the development of the service, they were reluctant to embrace the concept of "customers". Marketing was regarded as an alien commercial process, inconsistent with the core values of public service. Successive governments have promoted the marketisation of public services. Public services now compete for resources and customers both with one another and with private sector business organisations. Terms like customer, brand and market offering have claimed a central position in the rhetoric of the public service manager. Public and academic library managers have embraced marketing activities and, even, to some extent a marketing philosophy.

This article seeks to encourage information managers to take a critical perspective on the marketing activities that are employed in their organisations. Such a critical perspective does not invalidate marketing, but rather encourages reflection on the nature of marketing in pursuit of an enhanced appreciation of the nature and impact of marketing that can be used to inform policy formulation and practice. The large majority of the literature on the marketing of libraries and information services is in the form of either "how to" guides, or case studies of practice in specific contexts. This needs to be countered by an acknowledgement that there are unanswered, and possibly unanswerable questions relating to marketing. The exploration in this article surfaces some of these questions. From an academic perspective the identification of these types of questions aid in the development of an understanding of the nature of information marketing. From a practical perspective, these questions are dynamite. They can be used to put the over enthusiastic marketing consultant in their place, and to critique convincingly someone else's marketing plans. Awareness of the questions can form the basis of a powerful defence.

The seven questions posed by this article are:

(1) What is marketing?

(2) What is information marketing?

(3) Are you marketing or selling?

(4) When does marketing end and service delivery begin?

(5) Is it possible to brand an information service?

(6) Is it possible to "make friends and influence people" through a screen?

(7) Does marketing have any impact?

The discussion of these questions will address the marketing of both digital information products and services, such as electronic journals, portals, library web pages, and more traditional information services, such as the lending of books and other media, services for specific groups such as children, and user training.

What is marketing?

Many authors have defined marketing and related concepts such as a marketing orientation. To reiterate two of the standard definitions of marketing:

Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and service to create, exchange and satisfy individual and organisational objectives. (American Marketing Association).

Marketing is the management process, which identifies, anticipates and supplies customer requirements efficiently and profitably (Chartered Institute of Marketing).

These traditional, and economically influenced definitions of marketing are based on the concept of the marketing exchange, in which the supplier has a product to sell, and the customer is prepared to pay a price for the product. This model can be straightforward as in a normal retail transaction, or the exchange may be intermediated, as when citizens pay taxes, part of which is used to support public library services. "Payment" need not always be monetary; it can take the form of customer's time and convenience.

Over the past few years, marketers have endorsed the concept of relationship marketing, arguing, that to focus on one transaction at a time, is to take a very shortterm perspective. Relationship marketing recognises that the core of marketing is the relationship between the organisation and the customer, which may extend over many transactions and several years. This leads in to quite a different perspective on marketing. Where, for instance in traditional marketing, the focus is on the benefits from each individual transaction, in relationship marketing the focus shifts to the value of the relationship and concepts such as customer lifetime value. The emphasis in marketing communication and service delivery is on maintaining the relationship with the customer. A systematic relationship marketing approach requires an analysis of the customers of a library and information service, and an understanding of the aspects of the service that create "value" for these different groups. The challenge is then to develop a series of value generating activities that continues to forge relationships with customers. Whilst this approach has much to recommend it, some authors would argue that many customers do not want relationships, but are content with a series of satisfactory transactions. Even a customer who regularly visits the same service outlet or retailer may seek convenience rather than commitment. Furthermore in many public service contexts, the customer may have no choice. They may express negative word-ofmouth and become a "difficult" customer, but ultimately they may have little choice but to accept the service on offer.

Notwithstanding the importance of the concept of relationship marketing, there is a more fundamental role for, or effect of, (depending on the ethical position that you chose to take) marketing, and that is to affect behaviour and change attitudes. Naomi Klein in No Logo, demonstrates the ethical concerns and global impacts of aggressive marketing and business practices. But closer to home, and on a much more modest level, marketing of libraries and information services is intended to raise awareness of the service amongst its stake holders. In public relations with senior managers this means attracting resources to the service that might otherwise be used to support other academic activities, or other public services. What are the consequences to the organisation, or to public service of the allocation of resources to a library and information service? Working with customers, the objective is once again to affect behaviour. Promotion of digital resources to student users is largely about trying to raise students' awareness of these services and the effectiveness of use, with a view to enhancing their learning. Is user training an integral part of marketing? Where does marketing end and teaching begin?

Is information marketing different?

Rowley (2001) defines information marketing as:

The marketing of information-based products and services.

As such information marketing needs to focus on marketing in contexts and organisations in which information-based products and services are a significant product category. Typical information based products and services include books, CDs, videos, journals, journal articles, databases, electronic journals, newspapers and databanks. Typical information based services include public libraries, academic libraries, workplace information centres, access to databases, electronic current awareness services, business consultancy services, subject gateways, organisational Web sites, and Webbased information services. Although the six markets model of marketing (Christopher et al., 1991) suggests that marketing needs to address six different audiences, including internal markets, and supplier markets, the dominant focus for marketing has always been on the "retailers" and consumers. The primary retailers in information marketing are libraries, bookshops, database producers, online search services, businesses, intelligence services, and portals that act as the interface between the consumer and the producer in respect of these products. The activities of these groups are the focus of this article, but it is important to acknowledge that these providers operate in a dynamic marketplace in which the dynamic between information and marketing is constantly shifting.

One feature of that marketplace is its increasing digitisation. Whilst digital delivery is only one channel of information and service delivery, it is an increasing important channel that is setting some of the parameters for future libraries. This has a number of implications for information marketing:

Hybrid libraries. Some products and services are delivered through electronic channels, whereas other services, require a visit to a bricks and mortar library, face-- to-face interaction with library staff, telephone communication between users and staff, collection of print materials from the library, and the use of print documents in the library. This means that library managers need to manage both channels in parallel, and to understand the different needs that the different channels can meet. Marketing messages that communicate the complementary value of different channels clearly and simply are essential.

Service delivery at a distance. Many users, and this in an academic institution might include a high percentage of the academic staff who may facilitate and encourage student use of library resources, may never visit the library building. All of their access to library resources may be through inter library loans delivery of articles, access to electronic journals, and use of electronic searching facilities, which can be executed from any workstation at home or in the office. Much of this service delivery at a distance will be unsupported by a human interaction, and will therefore be self-- service. This might include independent searching, renewal of books, and even departmental subscription to additional electronic resources that might compliment those available through the library.

Training. In an environment where users function in a self-service mode, their satisfaction depends upon their ability to use the service effectively. Training, both in formal and informal person-to-person based training sessions, and in online mode become more important. This training context in some senses substitutes for service delivery as an arena in which relationships between the library and users are built and cultivated. Interactions in this model may be less frequent and less habitual than in the more traditional library context, but they often have the potential to be more meaningful.

Online learning and the knowledge economy. Policy makers understand the importance of developing learners (both staff and students) so that they are able to function effectively in a digital knowledge based economy. In this context students need to be supported in the development of their ICT and information skills, and the development of these skills needs to be embedded in the curriculum. This opens up a further arena in which relationships with users can be forged and strengthened.

Users who are accustomed to accessing the Internet for leisure, and study purposes. Some will have developed good searching skills, but many others are satisfied with the information at their fingertips, and are undiscriminating in respect of the authority or relevance of the information that they retrieve. Nevertheless, as consumers their expectation in respect of the quality of the Web experience are ever increasing.

A global marketplace for any products or services that can be accessed over the Web. This includes learning. Universities are aware that some of their most lucrative markets, such as part-time management and professional education, may be challenged by online learning providers. In such a context it is important that universities be able to demonstrate that they offer their students the best of traditional and online learning if they are to compete with virtual universities in a global marketplace. The quality of the online learning options available to the user in this environment is crucial, and cannot be delivered without seamless access through specifically designed learning environments to a wide range of electronic information resources.

Marketing or selling?

Marketing orientation is a philosophy that places customers and their needs at the heart of what the organisation does. The assumption is that customers are looking for the offering that best fits their needs, and therefore the organisation must define those needs, and develop appropriate offerings. These offerings include product, brand, price, delivery options, and other relevant elements of the marketing mix. Customers are individuals and each person's or organisation's needs may be different. In order to respond in an efficient way, organisations define customer groups, and seek to meet the needs that can be associated with those groups. If organisations do not create and hold customers, clients, users, or members, they undermine the reason for their existence. Now, marketing orientation sounds as if it should sit comfortably with the traditional service ethos of libraries and other information providers. Marketing orientation sees customers as the main asset of the organisation, and leads naturally into a relationship marketing perspective. But most organisations also have other assets that they seek to deploy, whether these be their expertise of their staff, their factories and plan, or business partnerships and networks. Libraries, in particular have enormous resources and archives. Innovation is often technologically led, with new technologies looking for an application and a market. These forces cause a pull towards one of the other approaches to marketing:

Production orientation, where the emphasis is on making products that are affordable and available; price is seen as the differentiating factor between products, and customer are assumed to buy the cheapest (or most convenient?) product.

Product orientation, where the focus is on quality of the product, and consumers are assumed to seek the highest level of quality for their money.

Sales orientation, where the assumption is that consumers are reluctant to purchase, and therefore need encouragement, and products are pushed towards them.

Which orientation reflects the approach adopted by your library most accurately?

When does marketing end and service delivery begin?

A loyal customer base is a valuable asset to any organisation. In both traditional channels and digital channels, customer acquisition is expensive, and it is much more efficient to maintain existing customers. Accordingly, the concept of loyalty has been much discussed in the marketing literature. Quite apart from any identifiable customer acquisition costs, retaining existing customers is better because organisations can get to know a stable customer community, and start to understand the benefits that customers seek, and respond accordingly. Some degree of customisation is possible as the organisation and those in the organisation who come into contact with customers get better acquainted with customers. Retaining customers is all about ensuring that customers want to return. In service organisations the most significant marketing opportunity is the service episode. Marketing becomes embedded in the service experience. This is true from a number of different perspectives:

Service delivery is an opportunity for tailored marketing communication, and for, in general, making customers aware of the service that is on offer.

Although there is some contention regarding the relationship between customer satisfaction with service delivery and loyalty (in terms of repeat purchases, or positive word-of-mouth) customer satisfaction plays a pivotal role in subsequent behaviour and recommendations to others.

The service episode is an opportunity for developing relationships and impressions.

In summary, good customer care is not simply about delivering a service that has a positive evaluation. It may have a significant impact on return visits, and repeat opportunities for further building the "marketing relationship". This means that the contribution of those staff that come into direct contact with the customers or the public is crucial, as are the resources they have at their disposal in order to meet customer needs. The competencies of these staff are key in forming impressions of the service. Accordingly, appropriate training and development for some of the lowest grades of staff in libraries is paramount.

Is it really possible to brand an information service?

Brands allow producers to differentiate their product from that of their competitors, and assist customers in the selection of an appropriate product. Branding is concerned with the creation of images and expectations in the minds of the consumer. These expectations often have a significant effect on the product or service selection, and in the case of services, the development of the service interaction, and the relationship between the organisation (or brand) and the customer. Well known brands such as Cadbury's, Ford, Disney, Virgin and Rolls Royce are used by customers as an indication of quality and expertise within a specific product range. A brand can be viewed as the seller's promise to deliver consistently a specific set of benefits and services. The brand enables the purchaser to obtain products and to satisfy specific wants, without having to resort to a detailed description of them.

Kotler (1994) defines a brand thus:

A brand is a name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of the competitors.

This definition reflects the role of a brand name or symbol as a sign or logo. De Chernatony and Dall'Olmo Riley (1998) proposed a number of other definitions of the concept of brand, including the brand as an image, an identity system, a value system, a relationship and a personality.

Branding is most commonly associated with high-profile international consumer brands. These are not the types of brands that concern library and information professionals. They are more likely to be concerned with the concept of brand from one of the following perspectives:

the creation of a corporate identity for their own products and services; or the evaluation of branded products and services provided by others in the information marketplace in the selection of goods and service that support their activities with end-consumers.

Brand is a concept in the mind of the consumer. Marketers can only assist in the formulation and crystallisation of this brand image. For information services there are a number of challenges in the creation of a concept of brand or corporate identity as something with which customers can have a positive association or affinity:

Designing memorable brand marks that can be used to communicate a coherence of documents, communication through different channels and service points which information service brand marks or brand names can you recall? How do you represent the diffuse and abstract concept of "information" in the design of a brand mark?

Identifying and communicating the values that might be associated with a brand. Can you list the values that the typical information service would espouse? What terms would an information service like its customers to use to describe it? Do terms like fun, authoritative, relevant, timely, accessible capture values that matter to users?

Is it possible to go beyond values and create a brand personality? If customers are to have relationships with an organisation they need to create a concept of the entity with which they are having a relationship. Are customers likely to describe an information service as "soft and cuddly", "with attitude", "dry and lacking in warmth and humour", or "refreshing, innovative and creative"?

Is it possible to "make friends and influence people" through a screen?

Digital delivery of library and information services is becoming ever more significant. This means that marketing communication and relationship building is increasingly dependent on the content that can be captured on one small screen. There is a big difference between the experience of wandering around and browsing a bricks and mortar library with its study carrels, desks, rows of books and journals, other users, and service assistants, and the very "arid" experience of the digital library.

In comparing online shopping with traditional retail channels, much is made of the self-service nature of the Internet experience. However, both retail outlets and libraries have traditionally involved elements of self-service. The interaction with a computer depersonalises the service experience, and careful attention to online service design, and opportunities to call upon human service agents (through one of e-mail, telephone or face-to-face) are very important in establishing and maintaining customer relationships. In addition, the quality of the service experience depends to some considerable extent on what the customer does. Online screen dialogue has limited scope for adjustment to meet different problems. The customer needs to learn how to use the system, and benefits from good interface design.

Most information services aspire to the status of portal or "first port of call" for certain types of information use. In the academic library sector there is competition for this preferred supplier status between the

Web sites of individual tutors, library Web sites, (including both Web sites of the home university and those of other universities) and a variety of subject gateways funded through various HEFCE and DISC initiatives. Yet, despite all of these worthy portals to authoritative information sources, students have unreservedly embraced the search engine Google. Now why might this be? Could it be that Google has achieved a brand visibility across the student community that is far in excess of that achieved by other portals? Or perhaps the universality of the source appeals to students, with the option of doing academic research, travel arrangements and leisure bookings all through the same interface and search tool?

Many marketers would argue that communication with customers is important in forging relationships. E-mail is used extensively as an avenue for dialogue. E-mails can be used to: distribute bulletins; access help desk services; convey promotional messages (permission marketing); and for customer feedback. However e-mail communication with customers needs careful management to be effective. E-mail needs to be: relevant and, if uninvited, targeted; timely and infrequent; and personalised. It is also important to provide an easy opt-out from providing further messages, and to respond quickly. Service agents need to be trained to formulate e-mails that offer a considered and effective response. Online communities provide an opportunity for customers to communicate with one another.

Does marketing have any impact?

Any good business manager will ask about return on investment. They will want to assess the impact of marketing activities. Any marketing activities that go beyond those embedded in good customer service need a budget and expenditure. Justification will be expected for any budget request. There are a number of different ways to establish a budget:

the resource that can be made available;

a percentage of sales;

the budget necessary for parity with competitors;

the budget necessary to meet the desired objectives.

The final one of these is the best basis for subsequent evaluation of marketing strategy, because it is objective based. Measuring the impact of promotional activities is notoriously difficult, quite simply because there is usually no "control" situation, so it is difficult to differentiate between the customer response after marketing, and what that response might have been without marketing. It is often difficult to differentiate between the effect of promotion and other elements of the marketing mix, such as price, and distribution mechanism. In addition, in order to measure impact it is important to be explicit about the objectives of marketing strategies, and to develop a range of measures to demonstrate that these objectives have been achieved. The most obvious measures in commercial environments relate to sales, market share, and a number of indicial measures such as profit and return on investment. Other measures that may be more relevant in public service contexts, where no "sales" are made, are more esoteric and subjective. These include customer satisfaction, reputation, level of customer engagement with the service, and visibility in the market.

Digital environments offer a number of opportunities for collecting customer data about site visits, transactions performed, contact addresses and personal profiles. These, coupled with the powerful software tools that are available to support analysis, offer potential for the development of whole new perspectives on the measurement of user behaviour. They may contribute towards the measurement of the effectiveness of marketing communication in terms of

Awareness efficiency - target Web users/all Web users.

Locatability/ attraction efficiency - number of individual visits/number of seeks.

Contact efficiency - number of active visitors/number of visits.

Conversion efficiency - number of purchases/number of active visits.

Retention efficiency - number of repurchases/number of purchases (Berthon et al., 1998).

Again, however, these measures are useful when the Web is evaluated simply as a marketing communications medium. They are less useful when the Web is the medium for service and digital product delivery, because marketing communication becomes inextricably entwined with service delivery, and it is difficult to differentiate between the effect of different factors on customer response. Nevertheless, such a barrage of statistics should have the desirable effect of looking convincing and "blinding with science".

Conclusion

This article reaches beyond the "how to" of the marketing of library and information services, towards an analysis of some of the key theoretical questions relating to information marketing. The intention is both to set an agenda for theoretical perspectives and to pose questions that practitioners are likely to encounter. There is no straightforward answer to these questions, but it is precisely the difficulty in responding to these questions that make them interesting.